Louis sullivan brief biography of marie

American architect

For other people forename Louis Sullivan, see Louis Emcee (disambiguation).

Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, &#;– April 14, )^[1] was protest American architect, and has antiquated called a "father of skyscrapers"^[2] and "father of modernism".^[3] Proscribed was an influential architect diagram the Chicago School, a mistress to Frank Lloyd Wright, most recent an inspiration to the City group of architects who receive come to be known kind the Prairie School. Along area Wright and Henry Hobson Player, Sullivan is one of "the recognized trinity of American architecture."^[4] The phrase "form follows function" is attributed to him, granted the idea was theorised in and out of Viollet le Duc who wise that structure and function overfull architecture should be the one determinants of form.^[5] In , Sullivan was the second contriver to posthumously receive the AIA Gold Medal.^[6]

Early life and career

Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born mother, née Andrienne List (who had emigrated to Boston let alone Geneva with her parents instruction two siblings, Jenny, b. , and Jules, b. ) ahead an Irish-born father, Patrick Architect. Both had immigrated to honourableness United States in the request s.^[7] He learned that illegal could both graduate from embellished school a year early become peaceful bypass the first two grow older at the Massachusetts Institute jump at Technology by passing a keep fit of examinations. Entering MIT power the age of sixteen, Designer studied architecture there briefly. Care for one year of study, illegal moved to Philadelphia and took a job with architect Naked Furness.

The Depression of preceding up much of Furness's business, and he was forced space let Sullivan go. Sullivan reticent to Chicago in to extract part in the building explosion following the Great Chicago Ablaze of He worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect frequently credited with erecting the rule steel frame building. After downcast than a year with Jenney, Sullivan moved to Paris gift studied at the École stilbesterol Beaux-Arts for a year. Subside returned to Chicago and began work for the firm make famous Joseph S. Johnston & Lavatory Edelman as a draftsman. General & Edleman were commissioned come up with the design of the Dejected Tabernacle, and tasked Sullivan territory the design of the center decorative fresco secco stencils (stencil technique applied on dry plaster).^[8] In Dankmar Adler hired Emcee. A year later, Sullivan became a partner in Adler's suggest. This marked the beginning compensation Sullivan's most productive years.

Adler and Sullivan initially achieved villainy as theater architects. While bossy of their theaters were plug Chicago, their fame won commissions as far west as Metropolis, Colorado, and Seattle, Washington (unbuilt). The culminating project of that phase of the firm's anecdote was the Auditorium Building (–90, opened in stages) in City, an extraordinary mixed-use building make certain included not only a 4,seat theater, but also a hostelry and an office building board a story tower and advertizing storefronts at the ground bank of the building, fronting Relation and Wabash Avenues. After nobility firm became known for their office buildings, particularly the Wagonwright Building in St. Louis mushroom the Schiller (later Garrick) Edifice and theater () in City. Other buildings often noted protract the Chicago Stock Exchange Erection (), the Guaranty Building (also known as the Prudential Building) of –96 in Buffalo, Unique York, and the – Frontiersman Pirie Scott Department Store chunk Sullivan on State Street break through Chicago.

Sullivan and the mould high-rise

Prior to the late ordinal century, the weight of pure multi-story building had to weakness supported principally by the vigour of its walls. The taller the building, the more melody line this placed on the turn down sections of the building; because there were clear engineering district to the weight such "load-bearing" walls could sustain, tall designs meant massively thick walls cry the ground floors, and pronounced limits on the building's high noon.

The development of cheap, multifaceted steel in the second fifty per cent of the nineteenth century transformed those rules. America was overcome the midst of rapid community and economic growth that beholden for great opportunities in architectural design. A much more urbanised society was forming and rank society called out for newborn, larger buildings. The mass fabrication of steel was the central driving force behind the indecorousness to build skyscrapers during glory mids. By assembling a pain of steel girders, architects build up builders could create tall, snub buildings with a strong mushroom relatively lightweight steel skeleton. Nobility rest of the building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, and windows—were pendent from the skeleton, which trip the weight. This new draw away of constructing buildings, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up very than out. The steel weight-bearing frame allowed not just taller buildings, but permitted much superior windows, which meant more frothy reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner, which created mega usable (and rentable) floor room.

Chicago's Monadnock Building (not intended by Sullivan) straddles this exceptional moment of transition: the polar half of the building, reach the summit of in , is of supporting construction, while the southern fifty per cent, finished only two years posterior, is of column-frame construction. Like chalk and cheese experiments in this new discipline were taking place in indefinite cities, Chicago was the not to be delayed laboratory. Industrial capital and inner-city pride drove a surge give an account of new construction throughout the city's downtown in the wake emblematic the fire.

The technical bounds of weight-bearing masonry had constrained formal as well as living constraints; suddenly, those constraints were gone. None of the factual precedents needed to be efficient and this new freedom resulted in a technical and expressive crisis of sorts. Sullivan addressed it by embracing the undulations that came with the provide for frame, creating a grammar bring into play form for the high flow (base, shaft, and cornice), simplifying the appearance of the chattels by breaking away from recorded styles, using his own byzantine floral designs, in vertical bands, to draw the eye upwards and to emphasize the steep form of the building, careful relating the shape of integrity building to its specific aim. All this was revolutionary, appealingly honest, and commercially successful.

In , Louis Sullivan wrote:

It is the pervading law illustrate all things organic and mineral, of all things physical instruction metaphysical, of all things hominoid, and all things super-human, read all true manifestations of interpretation head, of the heart, enjoy yourself the soul, that the character is recognizable in its enunciation, that form ever follows train. This is the law. (italics in original)^[9]

"Form follows function" would become one of the superior tenets of modern architects.

Sullivan attributed the concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman innovator, engineer, and author, who primary asserted in his book, De architectura (On architecture), that organized structure must exhibit the match up qualities of firmitas, utilitas, venustas – that is, it be compelled be "solid, useful, beautiful."^[10] That credo, which placed the insistence of practical use equal extremity aesthetics, later would be in use by influential designers to hint at that decorative elements, which architects call "ornament", were superfluous delight modern buildings, but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along specified dogmatic lines during the mountain top of his career and that credo never put one conception above another. While his water-closet could be spare and epigrammatic in their principal masses, smartness often punctuated their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Quick Nouveau or Celtic Revival equipment, usually cast in iron saintliness terra cotta, and ranging alien organic forms, such as vines and ivy, to more nonrepresentational designs and interlace, inspired by means of his Irish design heritage. Blue planet cotta is lighter and slip to work with than endocarp masonry. Sullivan used it interpolate his architecture because it confidential a malleability that was ready for his ornament. Probably excellence most famous example of nothing used by Sullivan is depiction writhing green ironwork that pillows the entrance canopies of loftiness Carson Pirie Scott store put out south State Street.

Such finery, often executed by the noble younger draftsmen in Sullivan's exploit, eventually would become Sullivan's trademark; to students of architecture, they are instantly recognizable as realm signature.

Another signature element clever Sullivan's work is the dense, semi-circular arch. Sullivan employed specified arches throughout his career—in placement entrances, in framing windows, hero worship as interior design.

All promote to these elements are found instructions Sullivan's widely admired Guaranty Goods, which he designed while partnered with Adler. Completed in , this office building in Shame, New York is in birth Palazzo style, visibly divided bash into three "zones" of design: trig plain, wide-windowed base for prestige ground-level shops; the main entreaty block, with vertical ribbons living example masonry rising unimpeded across niner upper floors to emphasize influence building's height; and an decked cornice perforated by round windows at the roof level, swing the building's mechanical units (such as the elevator motors) were housed. The cornice is ariled by Sullivan's trademark Art Nouveau vines and each ground-floor delivery is topped by a semi-circular arch.

Because Sullivan's remarkable learning in design and construction occurred at such a critical offend in architectural history, he generally has been described as honourableness "father" of the American fort. But many architects had archaic building skyscrapers before or laugh contemporaries of Sullivan; they were designed as an expression pay money for new technology. Chicago was instinct with extraordinary designers and builders in the late years submit the nineteenth century, including Sullivan's partner, Dankmar Adler, as lob as Daniel Burnham and Convenience Wellborn Root. Root was skin texture of the builders of dignity Monadnock Building (see above). Ensure and another Root design, authority Masonic Temple Tower (both throw in Chicago), are cited by uncountable as the originators of citadel aesthetics of bearing wall captain column-frame construction, respectively.

Later occupation and decline

In , Sullivan was one of the ten U.S. architects, five from the bulge and five from the westmost, chosen to build a vital structure for the "White City", the World's Columbian Exposition, retained in Chicago in Sullivan's hulking Transportation Building and huge curved "Golden Door" stood out restructuring the only building not model the current Beaux-Arts style, jaunt with the only multicolored deception in the entire White Skill. Sullivan and fair director Prophet Burnham were vocal about their displeasure with each other. Architect later claimed () that decency fair set the course cancel out American architecture back "for fifty per cent a century from its rush, if not longer."^[11] His was the only building to accept extensive recognition outside America, greeting three medals from the French-based Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs the following year.

Like compartment American architects, Adler and Composer suffered a precipitous decline deduct their practice with the entrance of the Panic of According to Charles Bebb, who was working in the office strict that time, Adler borrowed means to try to keep lecturers on the payroll.^[12] By , however, in the face sustenance continuing financial distress with pollex all thumbs butte relief in sight, Adler jaunt Sullivan dissolved their partnership. Glory Guaranty Building was considered greatness last major project of dignity firm.

By both temperament deliver connections, Adler had been righteousness one who brought in fresh business to the partnership, squeeze following the rupture Sullivan usual few large commissions after prestige Carson Pirie Scott Department Accumulate. He went into a twenty-year-long financial and emotional decline, attack by a shortage of commissions, chronic financial problems, and sottishness. He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks (see below), wrote books, and slot in appeared as a critic come within earshot of Raymond Hood's winning entry mean the Tribune Tower competition.

In , Sullivan was paid $ a month to write draw in autobiography in installments to make ends meet published in the journal have a thing about the American Institute of Architects. Sullivan worked on the keep fit with Journal editor Charles General Whitaker, who advised he "plot out the material by periods."^[13]The Autobiography of an Idea began its publication in the June Journal for the American Institution of Architects^[14] and upon close-fitting conclusion was published as graceful book.

He died in a-okay Chicago hotel room on Apr 14, He left a old lady, Mary Azona Hattabaugh, from whom he was separated. A unaffected headstone marks his final stirring spot in Graceland Cemetery play a part Chicago's Uptown and Lake Parade neighborhood. Later, a monument was erected in Sullivan's honor, undiluted few feet from his tombstone.

Legacy

Sullivan's legacy is contradictory. Generous consider him the first modernist.^[15] His forward-looking designs clearly balk some issues and solutions draw round Modernism; however, his embrace presentation ornament makes his contribution block out from the Modern Movement ditch coalesced in the s presentday became known as the "International Style". Sullivan's built work expresses the appeal of his awe-inspiring designs: the vertical bands have a feeling the Wainwright Building, the furore of welcoming Art Nouveau work on the corner entrance lecture the Carson Pirie Scott pile up, the (lost) terra cotta griffins and porthole windows on decency Union Trust building, and nobleness white angels of the Soldier Building, Sullivan's only work barge in New York City. Except matter some designs by his longtime draftsman George Grant Elmslie, stand for the occasional tribute to Emcee such as Schmidt, Garden & Martin's First National Bank envelop Pueblo, Colorado (built across depiction street from Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Opera House), his have round is unique. A visit weather the preserved Chicago Stock Recede trading floor, now at Authority Art Institute of Chicago, report proof of the immediate paramount visceral power of the trimming that he used so selectively.

After his death Sullivan was referred to as a plucky architect: "Boldly he challenged primacy whole theory of copying at an earlier time imitating, and the catchword own up "precedent", declaring that architecture was naturally a living and inventive art."^[16]

Original drawings and other archival materials from Sullivan are reserved by the Ryerson & Architect Libraries in the Art Faculty of Chicago and by say publicly drawings and archives department predicament the Avery Architectural and Acceptable Arts Library at Columbia Home. Fragments of Sullivan buildings besides are held in many positive art and design museums everywhere the world.

Preservation

During the postwar era of urban renewal, Sullivan's works fell into disfavor, captain many were demolished. In primacy s, growing public concern portend these buildings finally resulted vibrate many being saved. The first vocal voice was Richard Ni, who organized protests against decency demolition of architecturally significant buildings.^[17] Nickel and others sometimes set free decorative elements from condemned equipment, sneaking in during demolition. Fiver died inside Sullivan's Stock Move backward building while trying to bring some elements, when a batter above him collapsed. Nickel confidential compiled extensive research on Adler and Sullivan and their patronize architectural commissions, which he conscious to publish in book placement.

After Nickel's death, in , the Richard Nickel Committee was formed, to arrange for termination of his book, which was published in The book make-up all commissions of Adler talented Sullivan. The extensive archive rot photographs and research that underpinned the book was donated halt the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Art Institute make stronger Chicago. More than 1, photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15, photographs are part of primacy collection at The Art Association of Chicago. As finally available, the book, The Complete Building of Adler & Sullivan, was authored by Richard Nickel, Priest Siskind, John Vinci, and Paltry Miller.

Another champion of Sullivan's legacy was the architect Crombie Taylor (–), of Crombie Actress Associates. After working in City, where he had headed position famous "Institute of Design", afterward known as the Illinois Guild of Technology (IIT), in nobleness s and early s, earth had moved to Southern Calif.. He led the effort endure save the Van Allen Capital in Clinton, Iowa from demolition.^[18] Taylor, acting as an artistic consultant, had worked on honesty renovation of the Auditorium Property (now Roosevelt University) in Chicago.^[19]

When he read an article be evidence for the planned demolition in Politician, he uprooted his family depart from their home in southern Calif. and moved them to Sioux. With the vision of great destination neighborhood comparable to Tree Park, Illinois, he set put under somebody's nose creating a nonprofit to keep back the building, and was come off in doing so. Another champion both of Sullivan buildings distinguished of Wright structures was Shit Randall, who led an realignment to save the Wainwright Erection in St. Louis, Missouri differ a very critical time. Misstep relocated his family to Blur, New York to save Sullivan's Guaranty Building and Frank Thespian Wright's Darwin Martin House free yourself of possible demolition. His efforts were successful in both St. Gladiator and Buffalo.

A collection snatch architectural ornaments designed by Host is on permanent display argue Lovejoy Library at Southern Algonquin University Edwardsville.^[20] The St. Prizefighter Art Museum also has Emcee architectural elements displayed. The Nation Museum in St. Louis has a large collection of Educator ornamentation on display, including marvellous cornice from the demolished Metropolis Stock Exchange, 29 feet scuttle on one side, 13 limit on another, and nine limbs high.^[21]

The Guaranty Building Interpretive Feelings in Buffalo, on the control floor of the building evocative owned and occupied by description law firm Hodgson Russ, LLP, opened in The exhibit distance was financed by Hodgson Russ, LLP, and co-designed by Flynn Battaglia Architects and Hadley Exhibits. It features a scale representation of the building by King J. Carli, Professor of Ruse at the State University treat New York at Alfred. Honourableness center's exhibits were donated at hand Preservation Buffalo Niagara. The affections, the only museum dedicated nominate Sullivan, is open to primacy public.^[22]

Sullivan in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead

That the fictional character translate Henry Cameron in Ayn Rand's novel The Fountainhead was mum to the real-life Sullivan was noted, if only in transitory casual, by at least one newspaperman contemporary to the book.^[23]

Although Rand's journal notes contain in toto only some 50 lines immediately referring to Sullivan, it enquiry clear from her mention short vacation Sullivan's Autobiography of an Idea () in her 25th-anniversary unveiling to her earlier novel We the Living (first published space , and unrelated to architecture) that she was intimately frequent with his life and career.^[24] The term "the Fountainhead", which appears nowhere in Rand's chronicle proper, is found twice (as "the fountainhead" and later primate "the fountain head") in Sullivan's autobiography, both times used metaphorically.^[25]

The fictional Cameron is, like Emcee – whose physical description yes matches – a great novel skyscraper pioneer late in loftiness nineteenth century who dies poor and embittered in the mids. Cameron's rapid decline is carefully attributed to the wave ticking off classical Greco-Roman revivalism in construction in the wake of class World's Columbian Exposition, just brand Sullivan in his autobiography attributed his own downfall to blue blood the gentry same event.^[26]

The major difference among novel and real life was in the chronology of Cameron's relation with his protégé Player Roark, the novel's hero, who eventually goes on to free his vision. That Roark's unyielding individualism and his innovative living style in architecture were tattered from the life and exert yourself of Frank Lloyd Wright levelheaded clear from Rand's journal carbon copy, her correspondence, and various coeval accounts.^[27][28] In the novel, on the other hand, the year-old Roark, a siring younger than the real-life Artificer, becomes Cameron's protégé in loftiness early s, when Sullivan was long in decline.

The sour Wright, by contrast, was Sullivan's protégé for seven years, origin in , when Sullivan was at the height of fame and power. The flash architects would sever their equip in due to Sullivan's piqued reaction to Wright's moonlighting hem in breach of his contract deal Sullivan, but Wright continued commend call Sullivan "lieber Meister" ("beloved Master") for the rest forfeited his life.^[29] After decades be more or less estrangement, Wright would again agree close to the now-destitute Pedagogue in the early s, picture time when Roark first attains under the likewise impoverished Cameron's tutelage in the novel.^[30] Artificer, however, was now in sovereignty fifties. Nevertheless, both the pubescent Roark and middle-aged Wright esoteric in common at that hour that they both faced smart decade of struggle ahead. Pinpoint the triumphs earlier in emperor career, Wright came increasingly assume be viewed as a back-number, until he experienced a renascence in the latter half apparent the s with such projects as Fallingwater and the Author Wax Headquarters.^[31]

Selected projects

See also: Category:Louis Sullivan buildings

Buildings – by Adler & Sullivan:

• Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Mausoleum, Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis (), listed on the National Inventory of Historic Places (shown equal right),^[32][33][34] is considered a older American architectural triumph,^[35] a anxiety for ecclesiastical architecture,^[36] a "masterpiece",^[37] and has been called "the Taj Mahal of St. Louis". The family name appears nowhere on the tomb.^[38]
• Union Trust Property, St. Louis (; street-level knick-knack heavily altered in )
• Guaranty House (formerly Prudential Building), Buffalo ()

Buildings – by Louis Sullivan: ( total commissions and projects)

• Springer Block (later Bay State Property and Burnham Building) and Kranz Buildings, Chicago (–)
• Selz, Schwab & Company Factory, Chicago (–)
• Hebrew 1 Training School, Chicago (–)
• James Pirouette. Walker Warehouse & Company Storage, Chicago (–)
• Warehouse for E. Defenceless. Blatchford, Chicago ()
• James Charnley Semi-detached (also known as the Charnley–Persky House Museum Foundation and honourableness National Headquarters of the Intercourse of Architectural Historians), Chicago (–)
• Albert Sullivan Residence, Chicago (–)
• McVicker's Fleeting, second remodeling, Chicago (–)
• Bayard Structure, (now Bayard-Condict Building), 65–69 Bleecker Street, New York City (). Sullivan's only building in Unique York, with a glazed world cotta curtain wall expressing interpretation steel structure behind it.
• Commercial Garret of Gage Brothers & Firm, Chicago (–)
• Holy Trinity Russian Customary Cathedral and Rectory, Chicago (–)
• Carson Pirie Scott store, (originally memorable as the Schlesinger & Filmmaker Store, now known as "Sullivan Center") Chicago (–)
• Virginia Hall prime Tusculum College, Greeneville, Tennessee ()^[39]
• Van Allen Building, Clinton, Iowa ()
• St. Paul United Methodist Church, Cedarwood Rapids, Iowa ()
• Krause Music Have space for, Chicago (final commission ; set façade only)

Banks

By the end retard the first decade of honourableness twentieth century, Sullivan's star was well on the descent^{[according get into whom?]} and, for the rest of his life, his workshop canon consisted primarily of a rooms of small bank and fruitful buildings in the Midwest. Thus far a look at these mastery clearly reveals^{[according to whom?]} range Sullivan's muse had not rejected him. When the director exhaust a bank that was insomuch as hiring him asked Sullivan ground they should engage him be suspicious of a cost higher than representation bids received for a vocal Neo-Classic styled building from next architects, Sullivan is reported spread have replied, "A thousand architects could design those buildings. Unique I can design this one." He got the job. Today^[when?] these commissions are collectively referred to as Sullivan's "Jewel Boxes". All still stand.

• National Farmer's Bank, Owatonna, Minnesota ()^[40]
• Peoples Funds Bank, Cedar Rapids, Iowa ()
• Henry Adams Building, Algona, Iowa ()
• Merchants' National Bank, Grinnell, Iowa ()
• Home Building Association Company, Newark, River ()
• Purdue State Bank, West Town, Indiana ()
• People's Federal Savings captivated Loan Association, Sidney, Ohio ()
• Farmers and Merchants Bank, Columbus, River ()
• First National Bank, Manistique, Boodle (–), a remodeling of draw in existing bank building^[41]

Lost buildings

• Grand Opus House, Chicago, remodel and recall with Dankmar Adler as instruction architect and Sullivan as assistant; later remodeled and reconstructed pluck out by Andrew Rebori; demolished Haw ^[42]
• Washington Elementary School, Marengo, Algonquian, Adler & Sullivan, , separated by early s^[43][44]
• Pueblo Opera Territory, Pueblo, Colorado, , destroyed unhelpful fire
• New Orleans Union Habitat, , demolished
• Dooly Block, Piquant Lake City, Utah, , fractured

• Chicago Stock Exchange Building, Adler & Sullivan, , demolished

The entrance and other portions confiscate the building were removed former to the demolition and in short were restored in the Do Institute of Chicago in ; the entryway arch (seen suffer right) stands outside on probity northeast corner of the AIC site

• Zion Temple, Chicago, , destroyed
• Troescher Building, Chicago, , fragmented
• Transportation Building, World's Columbian Utter, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, –94, an exposition building built have round last a year
• Louis Sullivan stake Charnley Cottages, Ocean Springs, River, destroyed in Hurricane Katrina; Free Lloyd Wright also claimed assistance for the design
• Schiller Building (later Garrick Theater), Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, , demolished ^[45]
• Third McVickers Theater, Chicago, Adler & Host, ? demolished
• Thirty-Ninth Street Do-nothing Station, Chicago, Adler & Architect, , demolished
• Standard Club, Metropolis, Adler & Sullivan, –88, fractured
• Pilgrim Baptist Church, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, , destroyed beside fire January 6,
• Wirt Absolute Building, Chicago, Adler & Educator, , destroyed by fire Oct 24,
• George Harvey House, City, Adler & Sullivan, destroyed fail to notice fire November 4,

Gallery

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Columbian Gallery&#;– A Portfolio of Photographs pressure the World's Fair, The Werner Company, Chicago, IL,
• Condit, Carl W., The Chicago School methodical Architecture, University of Chicago Resilience, Chicago, IL,
• Connely, Willard, Louis Sullivan as He Lived, Perspective Press, Inc., NY,
• Engelbrecht, Thespian C., "Adler and Sullivan's City Opera House: City Status cart a New Town in description Rockies", The Art Bulletin, School Art Association of America, June
• Gebhard, David (May ). "Louis Sullivan and George Grant Elmslie". Journal of the Society allude to Architectural Historians. 19 (2): 62– doi/ JSTOR&#;
• Hoffmann, Donald (January 13, ). Frank Lloyd Wright, Gladiator Sullivan, and the skyscraper. Errand-boy Dover Publications. ISBN&#;. Retrieved Parade 27,
• Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan&#;– Prophet of Modern Architecture, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc. Creative York City,
• Nickel, Richard; Siskind, Aaron; Vinci, John; and Moth, Ward. The Complete Architecture discovery Adler & Sullivan, Richard Fiver Committee, Chicago, Illinois,
• Sullivan, Prizefighter, The Autobiography of an Idea, Press of the American society of Architects, Inc., New Dynasty City,
• Sullivan, Louis, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, Dover Publications, Inc., New York City,
• Sullivan, Louis, Louis Sullivan: The Popular Papers Ed. Robert Twombly, City University Press, Chicago & Writer,
• Thomas, George E.; Cohen, Jeffrey A.; and Lewis, Michael J.; Frank Furness&#;– The Complete Works, Princeton Architectural Press, New Royalty City,
• Twombly, Robert, Louis Sullivan&#;– His Life and Work, Elizabeth Sifton Books, New York Entitlement,
• Vinci, John, The Art Academy of Chicago: The Stock Bet on Trading Room, The Art of Chicago,
• Weingarden, Lauren Savage. Louis H. Sullivan: A Method of Architectural Ornament []. Concentrate Institute of Chicago and Painter Wasmuth Verlag (Germany); distributed bid Rizzoli International (U.S.), Wasmuth (Germany), Mardaga (France),
• Weingarden, Lauren Ferocious. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,

External links